On September 3, 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin by chance. Even then he warned of possible resistance. Now there are antibacterial molecules to which bacteria does not become resistant: Artilysin.
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Something seemed wrong when British physician Alexander Fleming came home from a holiday on September 3, 1928, and checked his previously prepared bacterial cultures.
Lab error leads to discovery
Simple mold had inadvertently penetrated a Staphylococcus culture and pushed it back. That was the discovery of penicillin.
"Fleming has done a great job for our health system," says molecular biologist Martin Grießl. "Today, organ transplants or chemotherapy would not be possible without penicillin."
Over the years, there has been a rise in the number of antibiotic resistant infections, says Grießl Image: Lysando
But there is something else that Grießl finds important in acknowledging, Fleming's magnum opus. "In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech, he already warned against antibiotic resistance, which we encounter more often today than ever before. So, in addition to his scientific achievements, he showed great foresight."
Grießl works with the company Lysando to address the dangerous weakness of today's antibiotics. And perhaps by the 100th anniversary of the discovery of penicillin, i.e., within the next 10 years, there could be novel therapies that do away with the danger of bacterial resistance.
Naturally occurring proteins — precisely modified
The molecules of the future are called artilysin. In the laboratory, these are modified lysine proteins formed by bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, on the other hand, are viruses that specialize in bacteria as host cells.
After reading this, you'll never shake hands again
Think a handshake represents a friendly, professional way of greeting? Think again. Hand-shaking is a major way of spreading disease in Western cultures.
Image: picture-alliance/AP Photo/Stew Milne
Ancient custom
The practice of hand-shaking has been around for more than 2,000 years. It was documented in the times of antiquity, as portrayed on this ancient Greek flask. But the ancient Greeks, who thought illness was related to a imbalance of humors in the body and represented punishment from the gods, never made a connection between hand-shaking and disease.
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Gesture of peace
Hand-shaking is believed to originate in how, for two strangers meeting for the first time, approaching each other with open right hands demonstrates a lack of weapons. On a neurochemical level, a proper handshake can release chemicals in the brain including the bonding hormone oxytocin, which can promote harmony and friendship. But researchers have found it's a significant way to spread disease.
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Layers of meaning
Not only does hand-shaking pass along germs, it carries unspoken meaning - yet this can vary by culture. A firm handshake is positively perceived to show decisiveness in Western societies, while Eastern societies generally prefer weaker or "limp" handshakes to prevent imparting a sense of dominance. Regardless, whenever you shake hands, you come away with more than just a lasting impression.
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Nasty habit
Hand-shaking can transmit viruses like the cold or flu, parasites like scabies, and bacteria such as Staphylococcus (pictured above). Someone who has a cold could wipe their dripping nose, leaving mucus teeming with rhinovirus on that person's hand. When you shake hands with them and then touch your eye, you can catch that infection. Still eager to shake hands?
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Proper hygiene for prevention
One surefire way to prevent the spread of disease, including through handshakes, is to wash your hands with warm water and soap on a regular basis. But many people simply don't bother: In one observational study, only two-thirds of men washed their hands after using a public restroom. Which might make you ask yourself: Do I actually want to shake hands with the next stranger I meet?
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Handshake phobia
Prominent figures - including Bill Gates and Donald Trump - reportedly simply do not shake hands due to the disease factor. A person who is hand-shaking phobic could always carry around a small bottle of hand-sanitizer and constantly use it. But that person runs the risk of seeming obsessive and strange. Although there are some proposals for alternatives to shaking hands …
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'No offense, it just makes sense!'
A recent study proposed banning handshakes from healthcare settings altogether. Hospitals could be made into handshake-free zones, for example. As more people come to understand the link between the handshake and the spread of disease, the "anti-handshake" movement even seems to be gaining momentum. But what could replace the glorious gesture?
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The mighty fist bump
A study has shown that exchanging greetings via fist bump, or a brief touch between the outer portions of two fists, transmits 90 percent fewer infectious organisms than the handshake. And with people like Barack and Michelle Obama setting the example, perhaps that could become the next big thing.
Image: picture-alliance/AP Photo/Stew Milne
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"Lysine is found in many forms in nature," explains Grießl. "Bacteriophages use lysines to dissolve the cell wall of their host cell — to make their way out of the cells interior, so to speak."
Artilysin is designed for very specific applications and is effective against certain pathogens. They destabilize the cell wall of the bacteria and destroy the cells.
Artilysins are not antibiotics. The molecules are over 100 times larger and function according to a completely different mechanism.
Artilysins can act against both major classes of bacteria: Gram-negative and gram-positive. The molecules can be used very sparingly.
Artilysins are also effective against persistent cells — pathogens that manage to hide from the body's immune response.
"At the moment, we have about 450 prototypes in stock. They are intended for very specific germs and fields of application," says Grießl. The researchers can build molecules that are specific to each application and germ.
Artilysins, for example, can be produced to have a very broad effect against many types of bacteria. This could be used, for example, in the case of sepsis or blood poisoning in which the life of the patient is in danger and there is no time to determine the pathogen.
Elsewhere, for example, in the case of a less dramatic skin infection, one might only want to kill a germ and preserve the microbiome or the natural bacterial life of the skin. Because the microbiome also protects against infections, it helps to prevent new infections.
Nano-robots eat live bacteria
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No attack on cell metabolism — no resistance
But why don't bacteria develop resistance to this novel class of molecule? Unlike antibiotics, artilysins act on the cell wall. However, they change the character of the bacteria — they practically do not trigger mutations.
Antibiotics, on the other hand, have an effect on the metabolism of bacteria. Bacteria can adapt with the help of mutations in the genome — the formation of resistance. Artilysins, on the other hand, act completely independently of the metabolism.
Artilysin attacks cell walls and destroys germsImage: Imago/Science Photo Library
Moreover, the artilysins do not last very long in the environment. "Artilysins are normal proteins, and proteases that degrade the proteins found everywhere in the environment," said Grießl. "Environmental influences also help to break down the proteins, which are then simply no longer present at some point." As a result, the bacteria in the environment cannot adapt to it either.
Lengthy approval processes
And if the new antibacterial molecules already exist and function so well, why are they not yet available as drugs?
This has something to do with the lengthy and complex approval procedures. "There are, of course, many regulations before molecules can be put on the market. On the one hand, innovations are always called for, but then regulations prevent innovation," says Grießl.
In the case of artilysin, however, things are progressing gradually: "For drugs, the process takes a very long time. But there are other applications where it's faster." One such area could be veterinary medicine. Although there are strict and elaborate rules for approval, the procedure is not as complicated as in human medicine.
Viruses and bacteria don't stand a chance with a strong immune system
Our immune system is a effective mechanism, designed to defend you against milliions of germs every day. Following a few rules can keep the body's defenses in form and ensure that infectious agents don't stand a chance.
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Colorful diet!
The immune system needs many different types of fuel. Fruit and vegetables provide them. Your diet should be healthy and colorful: Oranges, red peppers, green leafy vegetables and red cabbage provide a potpourri of vitamins, and are especially rich in natural vitamin C.
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Get vaccinated!
In order to ensure your immune system is top-top, make sure you have all the necessary immunizations. Adults often forget to refresh vaccinations they had when they were young. Check if you need booster shots for tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough, polio, hepatitis, pneumococcus, meningitis, measles, mumps, rubella, the flu and others. Be sure to talk to your doctor!
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Keep viruses on the run
Scientific studies suggest that regular muscle training (jogging, nordic or pole walking, taking a stroll), three times a week for 20 minutes can boost your defenses. But be careful: overdoing it can also drain your immune system.
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Sleep well!
Sufficient sleep doesn't just allow your body to recuperate. During the slow-wave sleep phase, neurotransmitters are released and the immune system springs into action.
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Enjoy life!
Studies show that good spirits and a zest for life promote a strong immune system. Laughing and playing don't just provide for a better quality of life, they also boost the body's defenses.
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Avoid stress!
Negative stress activates the release of adrenalin and cortisol. These hormones can paralyze the immune system. Sensible stress and time management allows the body to rest and replenish new energy. Selective relaxation exercises like meditation, autogenic training and yoga can significantly boost the immune system.
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Take a walk!
Taking walks in the fresh air gives you a change of temperature and exercise - both stimulate the body's defense systems. Mucous membranes also benefit from improved circulation and the increased humidity makes it easier to fight off attacks.
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Watch the sugar!
Studies have shown that burning up short chain sugars like fructose and glucose uses up many vitamins that are no longer available to the body.
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Hot and cold!
Alternating hot and cold showers help regulate body heat and improve blood flow. An invigorating massage with a massage sponge or brush stimulates the immune system even more.
