Fifty years after the military coup in Chile, historians describe why Augusto Pinochet's coup had such a huge impact in Europe. A major factor was the power of images.
Media coverage of the 1973 coup, including this picture of General Augusto Pinochet, was seen around the worldImage: AFP/epa/dpa/picture-alliance
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Everyone knows the image of Che Guevara, his steely gaze directed confidently into the distance. In the counterculture of the 1960s, the "Comandante" emerged as a symbol of the idealistic revolutionary and long remained an icon of youth culture.
The photo of Augusto Pinochet, on the other hand, embodies the dictator par excellence. The general who violently overthrew Salvador Allende's government in Chile on September 11, 1973, was commonly regarded as the ultimate evil. But why, compared to other Latin American dictators, Pinochet in particular?
Coup caught on camera
While the coup d'etat in Chile shocked the world, the 1964 coup in Brazil went relatively under the radar.
The spotlight on the Chile coup was due in large part to the widespread media presence in the country, noted Caroline Moine, professor of political and cultural history at the University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines in France.
"This coup d'etat did not take place in the middle of the night and in secret, but in front of running cameras," she told DW of the events of 1973. "There were many journalists there, so the images flickered quickly across the screens, even abroad."
This was probably in the interests of the putschists, she said.
"The military wanted people to see what had happened. They wanted to impress not only their opponents, but also their supporters inside and outside the country," she said.
Through media coverage, the scenes were burned into the collective memory. The images of the bombing of the presidential palace, La Moneda, went around the world — as did the photo of the usurper Pinochet in uniform, with dark glasses and an expressionless face, sitting in front of his men.
The government palace in Santiago de Chile was attacked in 1973, and seen on TVImage: AP/picture alliance / AP Photo
For Joan del Alcazar, professor of contemporary history at the University of Valencia, the image of this dictator was projected in stark contrast to overthrown president, doctor Salvador Allende.
"The figure of a friendly, empathetic doctor, an undeniably attractive man, contrasts with the odious image of an unpleasant, authoritarian, despotic and, moreover, criminal military man," he told DW.
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Allende a fallen symbolic figure of left-wing intellectuals
When viewed against the backdrop of the Cold War, events in Chile transcended national borders.
"In West Germany and in Europe, Allende was an important symbolic figure because he represented the democratic path to socialism; he was a very strong symbolic figure for many left-wing intellectuals," said Lasse Lassen, a historian and researcher at the University of Würzburg.
"When he was overthrown, especially in such a brutal way — with the bombing of the government palace and his suicide — he became a shining beacon for the left in Western Europe. And Pinochet embodied the image of the enemy."
Legends of socialist struggle — Ernesto 'Che' Guevara, center, Chilean late President Salvador Allende, right, and Cuban independence hero Jose Marti, left — have been remembered in artImage: AP
At the time in Europe, the left was divided, said Caroline Moine.
"There were attempts, for example in France and Italy, to unite communist and socialist forces" in the same way as the Unidad Popular, an electoral alliance of leftist Chilean parties led by Allende.
"The coup put an end to that project and destroyed those hopes," she said. Nevertheless, the communist party in particular, but also the socialist party in Chile, very quickly launched a major international campaign after Pinochet's coup.
This not only stylized Pinochet as the embodiment of evil, but also glorified the ousted president.
"Allende was the one who wanted to defend democracy in Chile and died for it. In Europe, too, the idea of heroes who are willing to die for their ideas is highly emotionally charged," said the French historian.
The body of Salvador Allende was carried away after his death on September 11, 1973, along with hope for a democratic ChileImage: El Mercurio/AP/picture alliance
Yet, she added, the various parties within the Unidad Popular were not always so united.
"It was always said that the UP was a victim of the dictatorship; there was never any public talk of internal tensions. There was a kind of myth."
Brutal repression shocked the world
The extreme brutality on the part of the coup plotters in Chile shocked more than just members of the political left.
Similar repression was being imposed by other dictatorships in the region, including in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay during the so-called Operation Condor camapaigns.
"[Nonetheless] this military coup stands out for its cruelty, its extreme viciousness," said Joan del Alcazar.
Historian Lassen believes knowledge of human rights abuses in Chile and simultaneous Cold War tensions in the West contributed to the coup in Chile being particularly present in people's minds.
Ultimately, however, "neither Franco nor Pinochet were condemned as Hitler was, not even in their own country," he added. "It's a complex process."
This article was originally written in Spanish.
Artists After the Escape: Chile's coup, dictatorship and the path to democracy
September 11, 1973 changed the lives of many Chileans forever. A coup against President Allende brought Augusto Pinochet to power. Sixteen years later, a spectacular campaign toppled the dictator.
Image: DW/S. Spröer
Chile's September 11
September 11, 1973, changed the lives of many Chileans forever. General Augusto Pinochet, commander in chief of the Chilean army, overthrew the incumbent socialist president, Salvador Allende. The military bombarded the presidential palace "La Moneda" in the capital Santiago, arrested government supporters, leftists and Pinochet opponents.
Image: OFF/AFP/Getty Images
Salvador Allende, a people's president
The socialist president had only been in office for three years before the coup. After having nationalized companies and dispossessed great land owners, his government faced massive opposition. The US didn't approve of the socialist leader in South America either. With the help of the CIA, Washington boycotted Allende's economic policies and incited Chile's media against the government.
Image: picture-alliance/dpa
The president's death
President Allende committed suicide on the day of the coup, stating in his farewell speech that his commitment to Chile did not allow him to take an easy way out. The photo above shows soldiers and firefighters carrying his body from the presidential palace. Meanwhile, the Estadio Nacional stadium was used as a concentration camp: 40,000 people were detained there, thousands tortured and killed.
Image: picture-alliance/AP
A stadium as a concentration camp
Walter Ramirez, cameraman for DW's "After the Escape" feature, was also arrested. A student at the time, he was walking with a friend when soldiers arrested the two of them on September 11, 1973. His friend not only had long hair, he also had Argentinian pesos on him, which he needed to travel to his wife and son in Argentina. For days, the alleged "traitors" were kept in the national stadium.
Image: DW/S. Spröer
Shots in the changing room
Walter Ramirez and his friend were locked into a changing room with nearly 100 other men. They all needed to share two bathrooms, while bored soldiers shot at the windows. After several days, Walter and his friend were released. To this day, he doesn't know why. Could it be because his father worked for a US company? The topic is taboo in his family.
Image: DW/S. Spröer
General turned dictator: Augusto Pinochet
The head behind the coup was General Augusto Pinochet, supreme commander of the armed forces. He governed Chile from 1973 until 1990 in a dictatorial style. Political parties and leftist trade unions were forbidden. Freedom of opinion ceased to exist. Despite all this, the Pinochet regime continued to be supported by the US, as well as some politicians in Germany.
Image: picture-alliance/dpa
Torture, assassinations and book burnings
Chilean artists, writers and intellectuals were also persecuted. Song writer Victor Jara was arrested, tortured and shot to death in a basketball stadium in Santiago. Books written by authors regarded as bothersome were burnt on the streets. Numerous opponents of the regime were to leave Chile over the next months and years.
Image: AFP/Getty Images
Antonio Skarmeta: exile in Berlin
Author and university professor Antonio Skarmeta also fled Chile in 1973. For 16 years, he lived in exile in Berlin where he wrote "Nixpassiert" (Nothing Happened) and "The Postman," two highly successful books that were adapted into film several times. Exile was a theme that would dominate his life. His story is told in the DW special feature, "After the Escape."
Image: WDR
Isabel Allende's flight from Chile
Another internationally acclaimed writer who left Chile is Isabel Allende, author of the bestseller "The House of the Spirits." In 1975, the journalist and women's rights activist fled to Venezuela. Incidentally, President Salvador Allende was not her uncle, as is often claimed, but the cousin of her father. In her novel "Paula," she describes her years in exile. She now lives in the US.
Image: VICTOR ROJAS/AFP/Getty Images
Numbered days for Pinochet
In August 1987, dictator Augusto Pinochet oversaw a military parade in honor of the 14th anniversary of his coup (picture). But his days were numbered. A national referendum on his political future was planned for October 1988. The opponents of his dictatorship mobilized all available forces. With a spectacular action, they initiated change for Chile.
Image: picture-alliance/dpa
A successful No campaign
In October 1988, the Chilean population decided whether or not Augusto Pinochet should run as the sole candidate during the next elections. Yes or no? A colorful campaign mobilized the masses. A majority dared to say no. It was the beginning of the end of the dictatorship.
Image: picture-alliance/dpa/epa
Peaceful transition to democracy
In 1990, Pinochet handed over power to Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin (right). However, until 1998, Pinochet continued serving as supreme commander of the armed forces. Implicated in over 300 criminal charges, a final verdict wasn't reached by the International Criminal Court before Augusto Pinochet's death at the age of 91, on December 10, 2006.
Image: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile
The dictatorship's legacy in a divided society
It took a long time for Chile to deal with its former dictatorship. Democracy has by no means solved all problems. On this photo from March 2017, people demonstrate against the AFP pension system, which was privatized during the Pinochet era and still excludes many people from obtaining a pension. The dictatorship continues to haunt the country, but at least people can now demonstrate for change.
