This drawing by Carl Spitzweg was seized in 1939 from Jewish music publisher Heinri Hinrichsen, who was killed at the Auschwitz death camp in 1942. It was acquired by Nazi art dealer Hildebrand Gurlitt — and later found among the spectacular collection of works hoarded by his son, Cornelius Gurlitt. The work was auctioned by Christie's at the request of Hinrichsen's heirs.

The watercolor by the Jewish painter Max Beckmann entered Gurlitt's collection only in 1945. Held by the allied occupation forces at the Central Collecting Point in Wiesbaden from 1945-1950, it was returned to Hildebrand Gurlitt in 1950. Before working for the Nazi regime, Gurlitt had collected and exhibited modern art, curating Beckmann's last exhibition in 1936 before the artist fled Germany.

This work was owned by lawyer and art collector Fritz Salo Glaser. Artists of Dresden's avant-garde scene were his guests in the 1920s — as was the young Hildebrand Gurlitt. It is not known how Gurlitt came to possess the painting. It was confiscated in 1945 and later returned. Of Jewish heritage, Glaser only narrowly avoided deportation to the Theresienstadt concentration camp in 1945.

This painting by the famous impressionist is not suspected to have been looted. The artist sold it to the Durand Ruel Gallery in 1907. The Jewish art merchant and publisher Paul Cassirer is said to have given it to Marie Gurlitt as a present, and she left it to her son Hildebrand Gurlitt in 1923.

A short handwritten note allowed provenance researchers to identify this work by the French painter as a looted work of art. The picture was seized from the collection of Jewish politician and resistance leader Georges Mandel, who was executed by French fascists near Paris in 1944. German Culture Minister Monika Grütters (right) handed over the work to Mandel's heirs in January 2019.

The activist group Provenance Research Gurlitt identified this painting by French neo-impressionist Paul Signac as stolen Jewish property in October 2018. Gaston Prosper Levy fled Nazi-occupied France in 1940. Occupying soldiers are believed to have looted his art collection shortly before his escape. The painting was returned to Levy's family in 2019.

Hildebrand Gurlitt must have acquired this work by the French sculptor between 1940 and 1945. Previously belonging to the Frenchman Eugene Rudier, it entered circulation in 1919 at an auction by Octave Henri Marie Mirbeau, who is said to have received it as a present from the artist.

This copper engraving by Albrecht Dürer once belonged to the Falkeisen-Huber Gallery in Basel. It is not known how it got there or how long it was there however. In 2012 the engraving turned up in Cornelius Gurlitt's collection. "Old masters" like Dürer were very important to the National Socialists' view of art and were often exploited for propaganda.

The provenance of this drawing is completely unknown. It is certain, however, that Hitler considered Norwegian artist Edvard Munch's work "degenerate art." Some 82 pieces by Munch were confiscated in German museums in 1937.

Hitler venerated 18th-century French painting. He secured exceptional paintings for his own collection by targeting the collection of the Rothschild Family after the annexation of Austria. Hildebrand Gurlitt supplemented them with drawings by renowned French painters. He acquired this work by Boucher from a Parisian art merchant in 1942.

Cornelius Gurlitt hoarded the sculpture along with many other artworks for decades in his Munich apartment. Before his death in 2014, he consented to have his stocks researched and — should they include articles of stolen art — have them returned to their rightful owners in accordance with the Washington Principles on Nazi-looted art.

Bright, contrasting colors, simplified forms, and a return to a supposedly simple life untouched by industrialization are among the features of primitivism. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner's "Still Life with Flowers and Sculptures" (1912) is a primary example. In Germany, this style was at the height of popularity when imperial Germany was a colonial power.

Due to the large-scale export of objects from the colonies, the artists of the German expressionist movement, known as the Brücke artists, had easy access to non-European aesthetics. This sketch by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner was made after studying bronze reliefs from the Kingdom of Benin, which were taken and kept in storage in Dresden's Ethnological Museum.

The expressionist group was especially interested by one object in the Dresden Ethnological Museum: an ornate roof beam from a Palauan meeting house. The Brücke artists even said "discovering" it in the museum was the spark that prompted them to start their artistic movement. The people in the background of this oil painting by Max Pechstein were copied from the figures depicted on the beam.

French painter Paul Gauguin was certainly the most important role model for the art of the Brücke group. His Tahiti paintings brought him great fame posthumously, although he was embroiled in scandal in his lifetime. Nonetheless, his success, as well as the prospect of financial gain, was a reason for both Emil Nolde and Max Pechstein to set out for the South Sea themselves.

German artist Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (pictured here with his partner Erna Schilling) preferred to be surrounded by "exotic" sculptures, tapestries, fabrics and furniture. Some of them came from the colonies, while Kirchner designed others himself — yet he had never actually traveled to any of these countries.

This wooden seat with a leopard motif was long thought to be the work of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. Yet the carving originated in what is now Cameroon, where it belonged to courtly elites. The current exhibitions in Berlin aim to research the origins of pieces such as this one, which were most likely looted, in order to understand them in their original context.

In addition to the exhibition at the Brücke-Museum, a second exhibition at the neighboring Kunsthaus Dahlem aims to give voice to people who were colonized. In the pictured work, artist Lisa Hilli adds the name of the woman in the picture, laWarwakai, to an archival photograph of a white man and a woman captioned simply as "his Tolai wife" to show she was not simply a nameless subordinate.

Kunsthaus Dahlem invited contemporary artists to comment on the colonial histories of works. The Brazilian artist's installation is meant to recall vases that people placed in their windows as a sign of solidarity for the abolition of slavery in Brazil. The triangular shapes and trident-like structures pay homage to Black feminism, while making a statement against racism and sexism.

Nearly 130 years after they were added to France's collection, the artworks were returned in 2021 to Benin, in West Africa. Before their restitution, the works from the former Kingdom of Dahomey (located within present-day Benin) were on display in a special exhibition in Paris.

Dahomey, which existed from the 17th to the end of 19th century, was one of the most powerful African kingdoms. Behanzin (pictured) is considered its last independent ruler, coming to power through traditional structures. He led the national resistance against French troops when they invaded the kingdom in 1890. Following France's victory four years later, Behanzin fled into exile with his family.

In 1892, while French troops were conquering the country, various artifacts — including these three royal statues — were stolen from the royal palace in Abomey and brought to France. They were first exhibited at the Musee du Trocadero before moving in 2006 to the Musee du Quai Branly. The construction of the controversial museum initiated by former President Jacques Chirac cost over €235 million.

In Benin, the artworks will first be displayed at the governor's house in the coastal city of Ouidah, located next to the Museum of History (photo). They will then move on to the former royal city of Abomey, where an entirely new museum will be built. Benin, which became independent in 1960, wrote to the French government in 2016 demanding the return of the works.

In 2017, French President Emmanuel Macron had pledged to facilitate a law on the restitution of looted art. Until then, cultural objects kept by France were subject to a special legal framework: As public property, they were inalienable, regardless of the circumstances of acquisition. The law allowing the transfer of collections was passed in 2020.

In addition to the restitution of the Beninese artworks, France also returned in 2019 a valuable sword, which belonged to the general and scholar El Hadj Omar, to what is now Senegal. It was the first restitution made by France to one of its former colonies. In this photo, Senegal's President Macky Sall (right) accepts the sword.

In addition to the royal statues, other royal regalia such as scepters and portable altars will be restituted to Benin. This richly decorated royal chair will also be returned to West Africa. In addition to Benin, six other African states — Senegal, Mali, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Ethiopia and Madagascar — have submitted restitution claims to France.

It is estimated that Europe detains 90% of Africa's material cultural heritage. The collections of the Musee du Quai Branly in Paris alone contain some 70,000 works of art from sub-Saharan Africa. More than half were acquired during the French colonial period. Investigations are currently underway to determine if they were unjustly obtained.

Other countries in Europe have also committed to returning art from colonial contexts to their countries of origin. Germany, for example, wants to return the so-called Benin bronzes to Nigeria starting in 2022. In France, President Macron is signing the official handover documents to Benin on November 9. The artworks are expected to arrive there a few days later.

An exhibition that opened at London's famous Victoria and Albert museum of ancient treasures looted from Ethiopia has revived debate about where such artifacts should reside. The exhibiton comprises 20 royal and religious artifacts plundered during the Battle of Maqdala in 1868, when a British force laid siege to the mountain fortress of Ethiopian Emperor Tewodros.

After its victory, the British force was at liberty to take what it wanted, which even caused controversy and shame at the time in England. "We want to better reflect on the history of these artifacts in our collection–tracing their origins and then confronting the difficult and complex issues which arise," says Tristram Hunt, the Victoria and Albert museum’s director.

The complex issue of repatriating looted objects has rumbled on for years in Europe and the US without much resolution. However, most recently there appears increasing openness to engage with the issue, both on the part of major Western museums and governments. French President Emmanuel Macron said in November that the restoration of African artifacts was a "top priority" for his country.

The scale of the treasures stolen by the British army remains a mystery. "It is not widely known what happened," historian Richard Pankhurst said before his death in 2017. "The soldiers were able to pick the best of the best that Ethiopia had to offer. Most Ethiopians have never seen manuscripts of that quality."

The argument for returning such artifacts appears strong, but museums take their guardianship very seriously. "We have the responsibility, as a public institution and national library, to research, make accessible and preserve the collections under our custodianship for people and researchers from all over the world," says Luisa Mengoni who works at the British Library.

This Maqdala necklace was recently returned to Ethiopia. "It’s true that the level of care and quality in Britain is much better than ours, but if you come to the Institute of Ethiopian Studies in Addis Ababa, you can see how well they [Maqdalas] are kept and made available to the public," says Andreas Eshete, co-founder of the Association for the Return of the Ethiopian Maqdala Treasures.

Those arguing for the manuscripts' return say the library won’t lose out as it can retain high-quality digital copies. "We can use digital to increase access for people across the world to the intellectual heritage we safeguard," Mengoni says. The library plans to digitize some 250 manuscripts from the Ethiopian collection. 25 manuscripts are already available online.

"The artwork suffers when it is digitalized, plus many of the manuscripts have detailed comments in the margins — there are many reasons scholars need to attend to the originals here in Ethiopia, and which are not met by digital copies," Andreas says. New legislation would have to be passed by the British Parliament for the manuscripts to be returned to Ethiopia.

Other options that find a middle ground in the debate are beginning to be discussed. Tristram Hunt says he is "open to the idea" of a long-term loan of the museum’s Maqdala objects to Ethiopia, a move that "would be a step in the right direction," says Alula Pankhurst, son of Richard Pankhurst. Author: James Jeffrey