Whether it's Area 51, the moon landing or the 9/11 attacks, it feels like a disproportionate amount of conspiracy theories have something to do with the US. Expert Michael Butter says that's not quite true.
Image: Imago/Chromorange
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DW: So many conspiracy theories seem to have their origin in the United States. Why?
Michael Butter: To a certain degree, this is a misperception. There are tons of conspiracy theories in eastern Europe, and also in central Europe, that also have their origins [in those locations], even though the US tends to play a big role in them. And this is, I think, because conspiracy theories are always also theories of power. If you look at the period after the Second World War, the US has clearly been the most powerful country in the world. And, therefore, those who are investigating who is really responsible, who is benefiting from that, inevitably end up pointing their finger at the US. No matter if they’re located inside or outside that country.
What’s your favorite German conspiracy theory?
When it comes to Germany, I must admit I don’t really have a favorite conspiracy theory. Because the popular, influential German conspiracy theories all had horrible consequences. Think of the conspiracy theory of a Jewish plot to dominate the world that basically led to the Holocaust. Or think of the Great Replacement theory that is currently so popular. I actually prefer the moon landing conspiracy theory because it’s so extremely convincing at first sight, and second, because nobody, to the best of my knowledge, has ever done any harm to anybody because of it.
Michael Butter is helping coordinate EU conspiracy theory researchImage: Privat
And the Great Replacement theory would be the replacement of the current dominant ethnic groups through immigration?
Exactly. In Europe it’s usually about the replacement of the Christian population of Europe through a Muslim population by way of orchestrated migration. But for example, the El Paso shooter a couple of weeks ago also referred to the Great Replacement theory in his manifesto, and for him, it was clearly the replacement of US citizens through Mexicans. So there, you see there are always certain national variations.
What are some conspiracy theories that are unique, or special, to Europe?
It’s very difficult to say if they’re unique or special to Europe. We do of course have certain conspiracy theories in Poland, for example, about the plane crash of the former president in Smolensk. That blames Russia for orchestrating that plane crash. That would be a very specifically national conspiracy theory. What we usually have are conspiracy theories that circulate on a global scale, but nevertheless have certain national variations. So for example, the Great Replacement theory looks different in Hungary than in Poland, Germany, or the United States.
Conspiracy theorists in Berlin warn others of airplane "chemtrails," which they claim contain behavior-changing chemicalsImage: Imago/C. Mang
You're one of about 150 people involved in something that’s happening at the EU level called the Comparative Analysis of Conspiracy Theories. Nearly 40 countries are involved, and a dozen disciplines are represented. What are you doing there?
One goal was to actually synchronize the research on that topic, so that people don’t have to reinvent the wheel the whole time. Because, of course, nobody can research in Albanian, Polish, Czech, English, French, German, Italian, et cetera. So you bring these people together so that they talk to teach other in English. We’re currently editing a big handbook of conspiracy theories that will be state of the art. The other aim is to develop new research questions - to come up with comparative and transnational projects that, for example, trace exactly those transformations. So the Great Replacement theory that we talked about. And third, and finally, the goal is also to produce recommendations for stakeholders - for policymakers, for educators, for people concerned with the public communication of science that are more and more faced with conspiracy allegations in their daily work.
Michael Butter is the vice chair of the EU’s Comparative Analysis of Conspiracy Theories action group. He’s also the author of a number of books on conspiracy theories and is a professor of American Literary and Cultural History at the University of Tübingen in Germany.
Top 10 aliens from the big screen
Sometimes friends, often enemies: Aliens have inspired us in many movies. Here are a few of the funny, scary and odd-looking space creatures that filmmakers have put on the screen over the years.
Arguably the most famous alien story of all time, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial is a film that follows the friendship between E.T. and a young boy named Elliot. It's as unique as it is sad. E.T. can’t stay on earth, so it tries to call home. In the end, the call is answered, and a spaceship takes E.T back home. The film from 1982 was so successful that it was re-released twice with additional scenes.
This wormy fella and its friends are the hilarious companions of the "Men in Black." Though the Neebles only talk nonsense and are coffee addicts, they aren‘t completely lazy aliens. They can be helpful at times, but only if they’ve had their coffee fix, of course. The first "Men in Black" movie was realesed in 1997 with multiple sequels.
Image: Imago Images/Entertainment Pictures
The aliens are back
The second sequel of the "Aliens" series hit cinemas in 1986. Ellen Ripley, the only survivor from the first film, is found several decades later. No one believes her story about the aliens on planet LV-426, until the aliens attack the colony on said planet. Ripley defeats the alien queen so that she and her team can go back to earth. "Aliens" was the first action movie with a female action hero.
The crossover film Alien vs. Predator made its debut in 2004. The two species from separate movies — Alien (1979) and Predator (1987) — fight against humans and each other. That is, until predators and humans find a common goal: elimating the aliens. As "frenemies," they succeed — and kill the alien queen.
Image: picture-alliance/Everett Collection/20 Century Fox
The extraterrestrial next door
The friendly, odd-looking creature, Alf — short for Alien Life Form — has been on tv since 1986. After Alf crashes his UFO into the garage of the Tanner family, they take him in and care for him. Alf‘s favourite activities are watching tv, eating and relaxing. The sitcom ran for four years and was later concluded with a movie.
Image: picture-alliance/dpa/Super RTL
The third worst poets
Ugly, bad-tempered — but not hateful — bureaucratic and callous. That’s how the "Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy" by Douglas Adams describes the alien species Vogon. And what’s even worse: They are really bad at poetry. The original radio comedy broadcast was later turned into a novel, tv series and film.
"Megamind" is the alien villain in town. Until he gets rid of the superhero, his nemesis, and realizes that he doesn't have a purpose without him. The solution: Create a new superhero. His plan is turned against him when the new superhero turns out to be a supervillain, and Megamind becomes the superhero instead. The DreamWorks film was released in 2010 with an accompanying comic book.
The aliens in Dark Breed have a simple goal: Invade foreign planets and destroy all inhabitants. Astronaut Cutter and his team must fight against these aliens in order to save outer space from more destruction. This alien movie hit theaters in 1996, but reviews weren't quite so stellar.
Image: picture-alliance/United Archives/IFTN
Marsian Invasion
These creepy skeletons with massive brains are creatures of director Tim Burton’s imagination. They come in peace, they say, but the Martians who invade earth in fact want to destroy all life. Fortunately, these aliens have a weakness: loud music. So, instead of killing them with kindness, they're killed with music.
Image: picture-alliance/dpa/Film Warner
The alien from Area 51
In the film "Paul," the alien of the same name has been kidnapped and held prisoner at the Area 51 military base since 1947. There, he was used for experiments and had to reveal all his alien knowledge. He claims he gave Steven Spielberg the idea for E.T. Two friends, Graeme and Clive, find Paul when he tries to flee Area 51 and help him escape to his home planet.
