Syria's complex and devastating civil war has drawn in multiple foreign powers since it broke out in 2011. With Russia and Turkey seeking new solutions, DW examines where the major players stand on the conflict.
Image: picture alliance/dpa/V. Sharifulin
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United States
— Who it supports: Washington had given weapons and military training to moderate rebel factions fighting against government forces loyal to President Bashar Assad, but the US ended military aid in 2017 and later cut some $230 million (€198 million) in reconstruction aid. The US has provided air support and weapons to the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), an alliance of Kurdish and Arab forces fighting against "Islamic State" (IS) militants in northern Syria. Several hundred US special forces were deployed alongside the SDF.
— Who it's fighting against: The US has been leading an international coalition of nearly 60 countries, including Germany, targeting IS and other extremist groups with airstrikes since late 2014. The US has largely avoided direct conflict with pro-regime forces, but in 2017 US President Donald Trump ordered airstrikes on a Syrian airbase in response to a government chemical weapons attack against civilians. He surprised allies in December when he announced the unilateral withdrawal of US troops in Syria, saying: "We have defeated ISIS in Syria."His own advisers later walked back that statement leaving US allies unclear what the country's exact policy would be.
— What it wants: The US had remained steadfast in a commitment to trying to destroy IS in Syria and Iraq. However, its intentions on other issues have become unclear. In 2017, Trump told reporters that the US has "very little to do with Syria other than killing IS." But up to that point it had been deeply involved in brokering a ceasefire between government and opposition forces. The Trump administration has also given conflicting signals as to whether the US would oppose a peace deal keeping Assad in power. The US also seeks to block Iran and the Lebanese Shiite militia Hezbollah from establishing a permanent presence in Syria that could threaten Israel.
— Which peace talks it supports: Washington has supported UN peace talks held in Geneva since 2012 between representatives from the Assad government and the Syrian opposition. But those talks have so far failed to reach a breakthrough. Both sides have disagreed about whether Assad's departure should be a precondition for any final settlement.
Syria's civil war erupted out of the Arab Spring protests that swept much of the Middle East and North Africa in 2011. The conflict has since drawn in multiple warring factions from around the world.
Image: Atta Kenare/AFP/Getty Images
War with no end
Syria has been engulfed in a devastating civil war since 2011 after Syrian President Bashar Assad lost control over large parts of the country to multiple revolutionary groups. The conflict has since drawn in foreign powers and brought misery and death to Syrians.
Image: picture alliance/abaca/A. Al-Bushy
The dictator
Syria's army, officially known as the Syrian Arab Army (SAA), is loyal to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and is fighting to restore the president's rule over the entire country. The SAA has been fighting alongside a number of pro-Assad militias such as the National Defense Force and has cooperated with military advisors from Russia and Iran, which back Assad.
Turkey, which is also part of the US-led coalition against IS, has actively supported rebels opposed to Assad. It has a tense relationship with its American allies over US cooperation with Kurdish fighters, who Ankara says are linked to the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) fighting in Turkey. Turkey has launched multiple military offensives targeting Kurdish militias.
Image: picture-alliance/AP Photo/L. Pitarakis
The eastern guardian
The Kremlin has proven to be a powerful friend to Assad. Russian air power and ground troops officially joined the fight in September 2015 after years of supplying the Syrian army. Moscow has come under fire from the international community for the high number of civilian casualties during its airstrikes. However, Russia's intervention turned the tide in war in favor of Assad.
Image: picture-alliance/dpa/Tass/M. Metzel
The western allies
A US-led coalition of more than 50 countries, including Germany, began targeting IS and other terrorist targets with airstrikes in late 2014. The anti-IS coalition has dealt major setbacks to the militant group. The US has more than a thousand special forces in the country backing the Syrian Democratic Forces.
Image: picture alliance/AP Photo/A.Brandon
The rebels
The Free Syrian Army grew out of protests against the Assad regime that eventually turned violent. Along with other non-jihadist rebel groups, it seeks the ouster of President Assad and democratic elections. After suffering a number of defeats, many of its members defected to hardline militant groups. It garnered some support from the US and Turkey, but its strength has been greatly diminished.
Image: Reuters
The resistance
Fighting between Syrian Kurds and Islamists has become its own conflict. The US-led coalition against the "Islamic State" has backed the Syrian Democratic Forces, an alliance of Kurdish and Arab militias. The Kurdish YPG militia is the main component of the SDF. The Kurds have had a tacit understanding with Assad.
Image: Getty Images/A. Sik
The new jihadists
"Islamic State" (IS) took advantage of regional chaos to capture vast swathes of territory in Iraq and Syria in 2014. Seeking to establish its own "caliphate," IS has become infamous for its fundamentalist brand of Islam and its mass atrocities. IS is on the brink of defeat after the US and Russia led separate military campaigns against the militant group.
Image: picture alliance/AP Photo
The old jihadists
IS is not the only terrorist group that has ravaged Syria. A number of jihadist militant groups are fighting in the conflict, warring against various rebel factions and the Assad regime. One of the main jihadist factions is Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, which controls most of Idlib province and has ties with al-Qaeda.
Image: picture-alliance/AP Photo/Nusra Front on Twitter
The Persian shadow
Iran has supported Syria, its only Arab ally, for decades. Eager to maintain its ally, Tehran has provided Damascus with strategic assistance, military training and ground troops when the conflict emerged in 2011. The Iran-backed Lebanese Shiite militant group Hezbollah also supports the Assad regime, fighting alongside Iranian forces and paramilitary groups in the country.
— Who it's fighting against: Russia first intervened in Syria in September 2015 when it started airstrikes against "terrorist" targets. While Moscow has said it is targeting IS and other terrorist groups, US officials have repeatedly countered that claim by saying Russian airstrikes are primarily directed against non-IS rebel forces fighting the Assad government. The Kremlin, meanwhile, has accused the US of using its campaign against IS as a way to slow Russian and Syrian government military advances.
— What it wants: Moscow wants to keep Assad — its closest ally in the Middle East — in power and secure its military influence in the region. It has an important military airbase in the western province of Latakia and a naval base in the Syrian port city of Tartus. Russian leaders support a peace deal with broad consensus among Syria's moderate factions that would allow Assad to remain in power. It has also hinted it may support limited autonomy for opposition forces in certain regions within Syria.
— Who it supports: From the start of the Syrian war, Turkey has been one of the main backers of the Syrian opposition. Turkey has fought alongside non-Kurdish factions in the Syrian opposition, including the Free Syrian Army (FSA).
— What it wants: Ankara wants to block Syrian Kurdish territorial gains and prevent them from gaining autonomy in any post-war settlement. Turkey says that Syrian Kurdish fighters are tied to the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which has fought a more than three-decade war in Turkey and which is regarded as a terrorist group by Turkey as well as the European Union and the United States. Turkey wants a so-called "safe zone" in northern Syria and has pushed the US to disarm Kurdish militias. Turkish leaders have been ambivalent on whether Assad should be allowed to stay in power in a final peace deal.
— Which peace talks it supports: Turkey has been heavily involved in the Geneva talks and has co-sponsored the Astana negotiations. It has staunchly opposed Kurdish factions attending peace talks.
Kobani awaits Turkey's next move in northern Syria
Kobani on the Turkish border in northern Syria was the core of the Kurdish revolution in Rojava. DW looks at life inside Kobani, as Turkey continues moving heavy weapons to the Syrian border.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
PKK graffiti in Kobani
Turkey sees no difference between the US-backed Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) in northern Syria and the PKK organization in Turkey. The PKK is also considered a terrorist organization by the US and the EU, however, the western allies have supported SDF in their fight against the "Islamic State" (IS) group.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
Taking a stand
Adla Bakir, head of the Kongra Star organization, an umbrella for women’s groups in Rojava, recalls how she gave an oath to serve the people in the opening stages of the Kurdish revolution in 2011. The revolution’s emphasis on gender rights has empowered women to become fighters, politicians and activists.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
Protecting their neighborhood
Elderly women from the Society Protection Units set up nightly roadblocks in Kobani. The force is led by male and female volunteers, and is independent of the official police and armed forces. The volunteers are drawn from across all communes in the city, with the aim to swiftly mobilize forces in the event of an attack, and to prevent a repeat of the 2015 civilian massacre by IS.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
A welcome diversion
A Kurdish fighter serving with the US-backed Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) in Kobani enjoys some time with his son. He, like many other soldiers, is deployed in close proximity to his home and family. The Turkish border is a few hundred meters away.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
A grim reminder
The funeral of a Kurdish SDF fighter in Kobani. He was killed while fighting against IS forces in Deir Ezzor province in November. Despite US President Donald Trump's claim that IS has been defeated, the battle along the Euphrates river is far from over.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
Remembering the dead
Martyrs' Center in Kobani. Following years of clandestine work, the center was able to open publicly following the revolution in 2011. It functions as a social hub, supporting the families of those killed by Turkish, Syrian or IS forces.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
A brief respite
Soldiers from the SDF at a military base in Deir Ezzor province. Posters of the Kurdish ideological leader, Abdullah Öcalan and other prominent figures, adorn the walls. Following threats of an invasion by Turkey, some forces were redeployed from the fight against IS to the 500-kilometer (310 miles) long Turkish border.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
A glimmer of hope?
Men at a Kebab shop in Kobani cautiously welcome the news that US forces will stay in Syria for the time being. The comments by US National Security Adviser John Bolton appeared to put the brakes on a withdrawal abruptly announced by Donald Trump last month and initially expected to be completed within weeks.
Image: DW/B. Gerdziunas
Protests gather pace
Demonstrators in Kobani, made up mostly of schoolchildren, protest against the Turkish shelling of Kurdish villages in November.
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Taking a break
Youths in Kobani make their way back from the funeral of a Kurdish fighter. Kurdish residents fear that another military onslaught is imminent.
— What it wants: Syria has long been Iran's chief ally in the Middle East. Propping up Assad ensures an ally against Iran's regional rivals, Israel and Saudi Arabia. Tehran also needs Syria to transport weapons to Hezbollah, which also opposes Israel, in neighboring Lebanon. Iran's larger goal is to create a land corridor extending from Iran to Lebanon through Iraq and Syria.
— Which peace talks it supports: Iran joined the Geneva peace talks in November 2015 after the US dropped its longstanding opposition to Iranian involvement. Tehran has also sponsored the Astana peace talks along with Turkey and Russia.
