Four-hundred-and-eighty-three gold coins: the largest discovery of Celtic gold in the 20th century. A priceless find for Celtic researchers — and a valuable one for the thieves who managed to steal the coins from the Celts and Roman Museum in Manching, Bavaria, in November 2022. In a Hollywood-worthy heist, they took out the surrounding area's internet and telephone service, enabling them to snatch up the coins undisturbed by alarm systems.

The thieves were caught and will stand trial starting Tuesday, but only around 500 grams of the original 3.7 kilos (8.1 pounds) of gold has been found; the rest is thought to have been melted. It's a large loss of a valuable testament of Celtic history, a field where much remains unknown, debated and mysterious.

So what do we know — or think we know — about the Celts?

Central Europe: Home, sweet Celtic home

While many today often associate the Celts with Great Britain, where their legacy remains quite strong thanks in part to linguistic vestiges, their origins actually lie in an area extending from northeast France through Germany to the Czech Republic. The earliest archaeological evidence of the Celts comes from Hallstatt, Austria.

Findings there date to circa 700 BCE, though it is thought that Celtic culture began developing as early as the 2nd millennium BCE.

While the exact movement remains debated, Celtic presence eventually covered much of France and northern Spain, and reached the Balkans and the Black Sea area, as well as Anatolia (in present-day Turkey) in the east. With respect to the British Isles, the term "Celtic" came into vogue in the 18th century to describe pre-Roman civilizations there, but the extent to which they should be considered part of a larger, continental Celtic society remains part of scholarly debate.

Wait, how do you pronounce 'Celts' again?

Is it "kelt" or "selt"?

Both pronunciations can be heard today and found in various dictionaries.

Regardless of how you say it, the name "Celt" came from the Greeks, who came in contact with Celtic tribes in the 6th century BCE and called them "Keltoi" or, in some places, "Galati." The Romans used the terms "Galli" or "Celtae," with a hard "c."

The pronunciation has gone back and forth between the two ways over the last centuries, with "k" generally being more common today.

Of course, one can sidestep the pronunciation issue and simply refer to the many, heterogenous, individual Celtic tribes, like Insubres in Northern Italy, Boii in Central Europe, or Helvetii in Switzerland — because what is often referred to under one simple moniker was actually a collection of a few among hundred, linguistically and culturally related tribes that existed over roughly two thousand years!

Barbaric: A point of view

Alcoholic, uncouth barbarians that sprang into battle — often naked and painted blue — at the slightest offense and collected severed heads: Many descriptions of the Celts by Greek and Roman writers fall along these lines. But these authors weren't exactly neutral — they were often at war with the Celts, after all. 

The Celts themselves left no written histories. However, exquisite jewelry, decorated swords and other artifacts uncovered at Celtic burial sites point to complex societies and advanced metalworking techniques while showing off abstract depictions and graceful lines that speak to complex symbolism and advanced artistry.

Warriors first and foremost?

Readers of the popular French comic series 'Asterix' might imagine the Celts, of which the French Gauls were a subset, as perpetual warriors, in constant battle against the Romans.

While the Celts did engage in warfare, both defensively and offensively, they thrived from flourishing trade activity in Central Europe, largely thanks to their control over various waterways.

For instance, excavations of Heuneburg, an Iron-age fortified Celtic city in southwest Germany that was home to some 10,000 inhabitants, turned up proof of luxury Mediterranean goods like Greek wine, Italian gold and Spanish tableware.

Meanwhile, excavations on the British Isles testify to crop and livestock farming.

Celtic language is alive!

So what did the Celts sound like?

While we can't know precisely, there are a few Celtic languages still around today in parts of the UK and France. These include Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Cornish and Breton; all other Celtic languages have died out.

Greek and Roman authors describe Celtic tribes as speaking in mysterious, riddling ways, and information was transmitted orally, rather than in writing.

Matriarchal...maybe

Speaking of passing along oral information and histories, it was the druids, a type of Celtic religious leader, who were responsible for this oral transmission. These could be men or women — the latter are thought to have held high social positions.

Battle gear found in grave excavations suggest women also served as warriors. Ancient DNA from recent excavations in Britain even indicates some Celtic societies could have been matriarchal, though more evidence is necessary.

Edited by: Elizabeth Grenier